Primary Sources
Audio and Video:
Documentary 2007- Declassified: Sputnik. YouTube. N.p., 11 Dec. 2009. Web. 9 Nov. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ybB8WESJ89w>. This documentary includes live footage of the Sputnik era. Sputnik 1 was not seen as a Soviet achievement, but it was seen as an American failure.
Documentary 2007- Declassified: Sputnik (Part 2/6). N.p., 11 Dec. 2009. Web. 9 Nov. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ggp3dpz3u6s>. This documentary includes live footage of the Sputnik era. It talks about the major figures involved in Sputnik, especially Wernher von Braun.
"President John F. Kennedy Space Speech 1962." YouTube. YouTube, 17 July 2007. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oQOu0IAdgaA>. This is a video of President Kennedy’s speech in which he declared that America “chooses to go to the moon.” His dedication towards the expansion of the space program is a major reason why the United States won the Space Race.
First Moon Landing 1969. YouTube. N.p., 10 Feb. 2006. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMINSD7MmT4>.This video showed footage of the famous moon landing. The Apollo 11 mission was the most important in the Space Race because it proved the United State’s supremacy over USSR and ended the Space Race. 12 years after the beginning of the Space Race, the United States came out as victors.
Kennedy, John F. Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs. Rec. 25 May 1961. N.d. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKWHA-032.aspx>. In his address, President Kennedy advocates increased spending and support for the nation’s space program. He also discusses how Soviet Russia’s success in outer space could possibly lead to countries falling to communism.
Sputnik Beeping. YouTube. YouTube, 01 Mar. 2009. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lPFKd5p_t0s>. This is a video, but it contains the sound of the Sputnik 1 satellite. This simple “beep” sound changed the world. The sound “woke” America up and started the Space Race.
"Sputnik Beeps Overhead, Americans in Awe." YouTube. YouTube, 02 Feb. 2008. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHaJDuq6tBM>. This video includes various footage. All the footage is related to each other because they capture America’s awe regarding Sputnik. They are amazed by the advancement, but jealous because they wish it was them.
Sputnik Crisis. YouTube. N.p., 27 Dec. 2010. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJROTKO6IcM>. This video includes footage from the Sputnik era of newscasts. This gave specific details of the Sputnik crisis and its results.
Sputnik's Legacy. Perf. Roger Launius. New York Times. New York Times, n.d. Web. 9 Sept. 2012.<http://www.nytimes.com/video/2007/09/24/science/space/1194817120962/sputnik-s-legacy.html>. This video allowed me to visualize the dimensions of the Sputnik I better. It provided me with short video clips relating to Sputnik in that time period.
The Space Race Video. History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://www.history.com/topics/space-race/videos>. President Kennedy was determined to help the United States win the Space Race. He promised his citizens that America would land a man on the moon before 1970. NASA helped JFK keep this promise and in 1969, Apollo 11 landed successfully on the moon. This video praises America’s come from behind victory.
Sputnik Song. YouTube. N.p., 3 Oct. 2007. Web. 9 Nov. 2012. Sputnik was such a significant event in pop culture during the 1960s. This song shows that Sputnik was popular to everyone, not just scientists.
Cartoons:
"Eisenhower Playing Golf." Cartoon. Presidents' UFO. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.presidentialufo.com/old_site/Ike_golf.gif>. Political cartoons are great sources because they have strong meanings. This cartoon shows President Eisenhower playing golf while Sputnik flies over him. It can be interpreted as poor leadership by the United States has caused the Soviets to surpass them.
Jenkins, Burris, Jr. "Don't Spare the Rod, Professor." Cartoon. Presidents' UFO. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.presidentialufo.com/old_site/Killian.gif>. Dr. James Killian, Eisenhower’s science advisor, is being asked to not spare the rod when it came to catching up with the Soviets. They are willing to do what it takes to make mathematics and science education better.
Kruschev Celebrating." Cartoon. Presidents' UFO. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.presidentialufo.com/old_site/Eisenhower_1.gif>. Premier Krushchev is celebrating the Sputnik I launch. Sputnik I led to a rise of Soviet Russia’s power, which showed the world that success can be achieved through communism.
Marcus, Edwin. "Edwin Marcus Sputnik Cartoon." Cartoon. Library of Congress. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. <http://blogs.loc.gov/loc/files/2007/10/sputnik-jpg.jpg>. Edwin Marcus’ cartoon is an accurate portrayal of the American response to the Sputnik launch. America was “sleeping” and the Sputnik I launch woke them up. I used this picture on my website.
Williams, Frank. "Sputnik Panic." Cartoon. Presidents' UFO. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.presidentialufo.com/old_site/Sputnik_panic.gif>. This cartoon portrayed a majority of American’s feelings about the Sputnik I launch, which is panic. The United States did panic, but only for a short time. After the period of panic, the nation’s leaders started a plan to win the race.
Digital Images:
Alouette 1. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Alouette_1.jpg>. The Alouette 1 satellite was the first artificial satellite launched by a non-super power. Canada lunched this satellite on September 29, 1962. The Sputnik launched influenced other countries to develop a space program. Canada was the only non-superpower to be involved in the Space Race. This image is used on my timelime.
An Orbiting Partnership Is Born. Digital image. NASA. N.p., 15 July 2005. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/118781main_astp_crew_full.jpg>. The Apollo-Soyuz project was a collaboration between the Americans and Soviets. This project is a symbol of the détente polict that was being pursued by both countries at the time. This is the true end of the Space Race. The Space Race lasted from October 1957 to July 1975. This image of the crew was used in my timeline.
Apollo 8 Crewmembers. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Apollo_8_Crewmembers_-_GPN-2000-001125.jpg/471px-Apollo_8_Crewmembers_-_GPN-2000-001125.jpg>. Apollo 8 was launched by the United States on December 21, 1968. It was the first human-crewed space craft to leave Earth orbit, reach the moon, and return safely to Earth. NASA was able to gain confidence and momentum from Apollo 8. This image is used on my timeline.
Explorer 1. Digital image. Universe Today. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://www.universetoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Explorer-1.jpg>. I used this picture on my website timeline. It is of Explorer 1. Explorer 1 is indicated that the United States was approaching Soviet Union. This provided hope for Americans and let them believe that America will win the Space Race.
Explorer 6. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Explorer_6_paddles_up.jpg/800px-Explorer_6_paddles_up.jpg>. The Explorer 6 satellite took the first photo of Earth from outer space. It was launched on August 7, 1959 by the United States and NASA. The technology in Explorer 6 was an advantage for the Americans because they could use that technology to spy on the Soviets. This image is used for my website’s space race timeline.
First Communications Satellite. Digital image. WinnCad. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_JcIe4EsmDYA/TTph_EofD8I/AAAAAAAABBA/XnDX1xHsZC8/s1600/GPS-Satellite.jpg>. This is an image of the first communications satellite, which was launched by the United States on December 18, 1958. I used this image for my website’s space race timeline.
Hubbard, G. Scott. Sputnik: The Little Metal Ball That Fueled the Cold War Read More: Http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/Sputnik-The-little-metal-ball-that-fueled-the-2536655.php#ixzz27dixgXzA. Digital image. SF Gate. San Fransisco Chronicle, 6 Oct. 2007. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://ww1.hdnux.com/photos/12/12/64/2665748/10/628x471.jpg>. There are very few pictures of the launch on the Internet and I was very lucky to stumble across this one. Before seeing this picture, I thought the satellite was just launched into the sky. After seeing the picture, I now know that a rocket helped launch it.
"John Glenn Apollo 14." Space Ref. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Sept. 2012. <http://gallery.spaceref.com/us-spaceflight/AS14/lowres/10075555.jpg>. John Glenn is the first American to go into space. The Soviets were first to send a man to space, but the fact that the United States was able to do the same means that the US was catching up. I used this image in my timeline.
JFK Addresses Joint Session of Congress May 1961. Digital image. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/media/assets/foundation/nasa%20and%20space/jfk%20addresses%20joint%20session%20of%20congress%20may%201961.jpg?w=448>. President Kennedy was a strong advocate for the space program. In this image, he is seen addressing Congress. He said to them, "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth."
JFK at Rice University. Digital image. Wikimedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/JFK_at_Rice_University.jpg>. President John F. Kennedy is making a speech at Rice University in this image. I used this image in my timeline because it is a significant event in the Space Race.
Johnson, Lyndon B. "Space Program Progress Memo." John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/media/assets/Rollout/JFK%20in%20History/jfk-memo-lbj-space-p1.jpg>. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson responded to President John F. Kennedy’s request of evaluating the country’s space program. These now declassified documents revealed how seriously America’s political leaders took the Space Race.
Kennedy, John F. Correspondence between JFK and LBJ on the Space Program. Digital image. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/media/assets/Rollout/JFK%20in%20History/jfk-lbj01jpg.jpg>. President Kennedy asks Vice President Johnson to assess the country’s space program and see if NASA is giving their maximum effort. President Kennedy treated the Space Race as if it were World War III and it was a battle that he didn’t want to lose.
Kennedy, John F. Telegram Congratulating Khrushchev on Manned Space Flight. Digital image. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/media/assets/Rollout/JFK in History/jfk_telegram_khrushchev_april12_1961jpg.jpg>. President John F. Kennedy sent Premier Krushchev a telegram on April 12, 1961. The telegram congratulates the Soviet leader on the first manned space flight.
Launch of Vostok 1. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b6/Vostok1_big.gif>. The Soviets beat the United States in sending a human to orbit. Yuri Gagarin is the first human to travel in space and the first to orbit Earth. Vostok 1 is a signficant event in the Space Race and this image was used in my timeline.
Luna 2. Digital image. Space Pictures. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.spacepictures.org/albums/userpics/Luna_2_spaceprobe.jpg>. The Soviets looked as if though they were falling behind to the Americans in 1959. The Soviets answered back to US success strongly with Luna 2 and 3. Luna 2 was a probe that was sent to the moon and Luna 3 took a photo of the far side of the moon. I used this image in my space race timeline.
Moon Landing. Digital image. NASA. NASA, n.d. Web. 30 Sept. 2012. <http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/AS11-40-5875HRedit.jpg>. This image captures the most important event of the Space Race, the moon landing. I used this image in my timeline.
"Photo Gallery-Sputnik." Photo Gallery-Sputnik. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/sputnik/gallerysput.html>. This gallery contains seven Sputnik related pictures. Instead of citing them individually, I decided to keep it within one source. These pictures are used throughout my website.
Pregelj, Zdenka. Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova. Digital image. Russia, Past and Present. N.p., 5 Feb. 2011. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_cZuenMpLnLY/TU02pimkTjI/AAAAAAAACKI/NaSEQnUapxU/s1600/Tereshkova.jpg>. USSR launched Vostok 6 on June 16, 1963. Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova was the first woman in orbit. The Soviets have sent both a man and woman to space, while the United States have only sent a man. I used this image in my timeline.
President Kennedy Addresses Congress. Digital image. NASA. NASA, n.d. Web. 30 Sept. 2012. <http://history.nasa.gov/1658.jpg>. In this image, President John F. Kennedy is addressing Congress. He is explaining to Congress the importance of the space program and how more money needs to be invested. His persistence is a major reason why a man landed on the moon. I used this picture in my timeline.
NASA Creation. Digital image. Fold 3. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://img9.fold3.com/img/thumbnail/39929089/400/400/0_0_579_462.jpg>. NASA was created out of the National Defense of Education Act. This is an image of its establishment with its main leaders. I used this image on my timeline.
Reporting the Space Race. Digital image. Nebraska Studies. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0900/media/0901_0105_0102.gif>. The United States attempted launching their own satellites, called the Vanguard projects, but failed miserably. This image of a newspaper article reports the failed attempt.
Siddiqi, Asif A. Sputnik 1. Digital image. NASA. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/201353main_rs_image_feature_924_946x710.jpg>. The Sputnik satellite was the size of a basketball. This image helped me to understand the dimensions of the satellite, since there is a Soviet scientist standing right next to it. I used this picture in my website.
Soviet Fires Earth Satellite into Space. Digital image. University Honors. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://universityhonors.umd.edu/HONR269J/projects/castell/castell02.jpg>. This is an image of a newspaper cover of the New York Times the day after the Sputnik launch was announced. The Americans were stunned, as this newspaper chronicles.
Sputnik 2. Digital image. NSSDC. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/image/laika.jpg>. I used this picture on my website timeline. It is of Laika, the dog, on Sputnik 2. The Russians launched Sputnik 2 a few months after Sputnik 1. The United States was in full panic because Sputnik 2 made them realize how far behind they were.
Sputnik 3. Digital image. Mentall and Scape. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://www.mentallandscape.com/V_Sputnik3.jpg>. I used this picture on my website timeline. It is an image of Sputnik 3. Sputnik 3 proved to the world that the Russians were very advanced in science and were winning the Space Race.
Sputnik Stamp. Digital image. Wikipedia. WIkimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg>. This is a picture of a Soviet stamp that had Sputnik orbiting around Earth. From this picture, I came to the conclusion that the Soviets were extremely proud of their accomplishment.
The Cold War's Impact on Science and Technology. Digital image. Study the Past. N.p., 2008. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.studythepast.com/vbprojects/images/coldwartech.jpg>. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union’s nuclear threats were very public. “Duck and Cover” was a slogan that the United States publicly endoresed to promote safety. The Cold War was an era of fear for many Americans. The Soviet’s technological advancements increased that fear.
The Launch of Sputnik. Digital image. The Launch of Sputnik. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/03-04/Baker-LM-MB-3-04/images/sputnikorbit.jpg>. This image shows Sputnik I’s path as it orbited around the Earth on a daily basis. It would orbit over the United States seven times in a day and that frightened many civilians. However, the satellite was harmless.
The Launch of Sputnik. Digital image. The Launch of Sputnik. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/03-04/Baker-LM-MB-3-04/images/skywatch.jpg>. The American response of Sputnik was not all negative. Along with the panic Americans experienced, was also excitement for the discovery of a new frontier. American culture was intrigued by Sputnik I, mainly because there is so much mystery associated with outer space. People, young and old, would look up to the sky and look for the Sputnik. Toys inspired by the Sputnik were also made.
The National Archives. Digital image. Larger Image. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://www.archives.gov/global-pages/larger-image.html?i=/historical-docs/doc-content/images/natl-aero-space-act-1958-l.jpg>. This is a picture of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. This act is of great importance. Without this act, NASA would have never been created and the United States would have lost the Space Race to Soviet Russia.
Time Magazine Cover. Digital image. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/media/assets/Museum%20Objects/Crops%20and%20Not%20Museum%20objects/AV%20crop%20images/Glenntimejpg.jpg>. This is a picture of a Time magazine cover with John Glenn. The title of it is “Space Race is Go.” John Glenn’s orbit around the earth helped the United States get back into the race.
These Soviet Space-Race Propaganda Posters Retain Their Delusional Intensity 50 Years Later Read More: Http://www.businessinsider.com/here-are-the-soviets-extremely-intense-space-race-propaganda-posters-from-1958-1963-2012-4?op=1#ixzz27kV9EvKn. Digital image. Business Insider. N.p., 26 Apr. 2012. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://static2.businessinsider.com/image/4f9849a56bb3f79e2b00000b-398-599/soviet-union-space-propaganda.png>. During the Space Race, Soviet Russia produced a lot of propaganda. This image is the most popular out of all of them. It reads, “Soviet man-be proud, you opened the road to stars from Earth! Glory to the conquerors of the universe!” As evident by the saying, the Soviets were very proud of Sputnik I and its later Space Race achievements.
Vanguard 1. Digital image. United StatesNaval Research Laboratory. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nrl.navy.mil/content_images/vanguard.jpg>. This is an image of the Vanguard 1 satellite. After many attempts, the United States finally succeeded in sending a satellite to outer space. This was a huge sigh of relief for the American space program and government.
Vanguard 2. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Vanguard2.jpg>. I used this image for my website’s space race timeline. This is an image of Vanguard 2, the first weather satellite. This is one of NASA’s first projects as an official organization, and it surely wasn’t their last. The success of the Vanguard program encouraged the United States and led them to believe that they were catching up to the Soviets.
Interviews:
Das, Saswato R. "The Moon Landing through Soviet Eyes: A Q&A with Sergei Khrushchev, Son of Former Premier Nikita Khrushchev: Scientific American." The Moon Landing through Soviet Eyes: A Q&A with Sergei Khrushchev, Son of Former Premier Nikita Khrushchev. N.p., 16 July 2009. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=apollo-moon-khrushchev>. I did not conduct this interview with Sergei Krushchev, rather a reporter did and posted it online. This interview is one of my most valuable primary sources because it provided me an important Soviet’s perspective on the Sputnik, Cold War, Space Race, and America’s victory.
"USSR Misjudged Importance of Sputnik Satellite: Krushchev's Son." USSR Misjudged Importance of Sputnik Satellite: Krushchev's Son. N.p., 2 Oct. 2007. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/USSR_misjudged_importance_of_Sputnik_satellite_Krushchevs_son_999.html>. Sergei Kruschev answered a reporter’s questions and it was published online in this article. Kruschev says that for the Soviets, Sputnik was just a technological breakthrough, but for the Americans, it was a wake-up call and a deep threat. Kruschev goes on to say that the Space Race was really just an American race with itself. This could be a way of downplaying the American victory.
Thesis:
Bybee, Roger W. The Sputnik Era: Why Is This Educational Reform Different from All Other Reforms? Thesis. Center for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Education National Research Council, n.d. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. Roger Bybee was involved in education during the years of the Space Race. He presents the argument that the educational reform of the Sputnik era is the most significant of all reforms and he provides strong supporting evidence.
Websites:
Abramson, Larry. "Sputnik Left Legacy for U.S. Science Education." NPR. NPR, 30 Sept. 2007. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14829195>. David Hawkins led the effort to rejuvenate the science education curriculum. National Defense Education Act put a billion dollars into a new science curriculum. Nowadays, we are falling behind in science. No Child Left Behind focuses on reading and basic math, not science.
Anthes, Gary. "Happy Birthday, Sputnik! (Thanks for the Internet)." Computerworld. N.p., 24 Sept. 2007. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9036482/Happy_Birthday_Sputnik_Thanks_for_the_Internet_>. This article pays tribute to Sputnik. Without Sputnik, the Space Race would not have occurred, thus the Internet would have never been invented. Scientists recall its impact and how satellite technology paved the way for the creation of the Internet.
Arnold, David. "Sputnik 50 Years Later." Air Force Space Command. N.p., 1 Oct. 2002. Web. 23 Oct. 2012. <http://www.afspc.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123070183>. Lt. Col. David Arnold is a reliable source for history technology. He was involved in the United States’ space program during the Sputnik era, which makes his article a primary source. He gave four reasons for why the Soviets beat the Americans in space.
Castell, Kate. "Sputnik: The Satellite That Inspired Generations." The Beat Begins: America in the 1950s. N.p., 2003. Web. 06 Oct. 2012. <http://universityhonors.umd.edu/HONR269J/projects/castell.html>. The Sputnik launch had many effects on the United States. The major effect is education, but a stronger navy is also another effect. Leaders in the Space Race provide quotes about the events.
"EMC - Eisenhower Stories - Dealing with the Devil." EMC - Eisenhower Stories - Dealing with the Devil. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/stories/sputnik-crisis.htm>. This source provided me with specific information on how President Eisenhower dealt with the Sputnik crisis. He was criticized unfairly by the Americans.
Gale, O. M. "Public Opinion Index, April 14, 1958." Eisenhower Presidential Library. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2012. <http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/sputnik/4_14_58.pdf>. The office of secretary of defense sent a memorandum out. It addressed the impact of Sputnik, where to place the blame, and possible solutions.
Galloway, Eilene. "NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration." NASA. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nasa.gov/50th/50th_magazine/gallowayEsaay.html>. Eilene Galloway was involved in the space program at the time of the Sputnik launch. She writes about Lyndon B. Johnson’s leadership role in getting the program to be successful.
Guillemette, Roger. "Spaceflight :Sputnik and the Crisis That Followed." Spaceflight :Sputnik and the Crisis That Followed. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/SPACEFLIGHT/Sputnik/SP16.htm>. This source provided me with a detailed account of America’s response to the launch. The citizens and media were panicking and thus the name “Sputnik Crisis” was created. However, the President’s response to the launch was rather calm but Eisenhower was still proactive.
Hoffman, Michael. "Looking Back: Sputnik's Importance." DailyTech. N.p., 10 Oct. 2007. Web. 27 Sept. 2012. <http://www.dailytech.com/Looking+Back++Sputniks+Importance/article9110.htm>. The writer of this article, a Princeton graduate, recalls his memory of the Sputnik launch. He, like other Americans, felt jealous of the Soviets because of their achievement. The writer also benefitted from the educational reform, with the focus shifting towards mathematics and science.
Hubbard, G. Scott. "Sputnik: The Little Metal Ball That Fueled the Cold War." SFGate. San Fransisco Chronicle, 6 Oct. 2007. Web. 27 Sept. 2012. <http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/Sputnik-The-little-metal-ball-that-fueled-the-2536655.php>. Hubbard writes of his awareness of the Sputnik launch as a 9-year-old and the impact it had on him. He goes on to talk about how the launch of Sputnik was a critical turning point in history, which is very helpful because that is this year’s topic.
Jorden, William J. "Soviet Fires Earth Satellite Into Space; It Is Circling the Globe at 18,000 M.P.H.; Sphere Tracked in 4 Crossings Over U.S." New York Times [New York City] 5 Oct. 1957: n. pag. Sputnik Classroom Activity. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.trumanlibrary.org/museum/sputnik1.htm>. This was an article written to The New York Times from a correspondent in Moscow at the time. The article downplays the significance of the Sputnik launch and claims it to be harmless.
Killian, James R. "Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower A Memoir of the First Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology." The MIT Press. MIT, n.d. Web. 27 Sept. 2012. <http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?tid=7910&t>. James Killian served as a special assistant for science technology to President Eisenhower. This excerpt from his memoir tells his first-hand experience of working under Eisenhower, so this source is highly credible.
Launius, Roger D. "Sputnik and the Origins of the Space Age." Sputnik and the Origins of the Space Age. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Sept. 2012. <http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/sputorig.html>. This website served as one of my most valuable sources. It provided me great information about the launch, the scientific and political effects, and the global response.
"Legacy of the Space Race - How the Space Race Fueled Innovation." How the Space Race Fueled Innovation. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://spaceraceinnovations.weebly.com/legacy-of-the-space-race.html>. This source explained the legacy of the Space Race and the changes that resulted from it. The Space Race had fun effects, such as the selling of Tang. The Space Race also created mass communication and new modern technology with the help of satellite technology.
Minkel, JR. "Sputnik Hype Launched One-Sided Space Race: Scientific American." Sputnik Hype Launched One-Sided Space Race: Scientific American. Scientific American, 5 Oct. 2007. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=sputnik-50-years-space-race-hype>. Sputnik resulted from Russian engineers who were originally attempting to create an intercontinental ballistic missile. The Americans were stunned by Sputnik and the Soviet’s scientific/technological advancement. Premier Nikita Krushchev took pride in Sputnik because it gave the country bragging rights over the United States.
NASA - An Orbiting Partnership Is Born." NASA. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/features/astp_30_prt.htm>. The Apollo-Soyuz project was a significant collaboration between United States and USSR. This marked the end of the Space Race, but it was the beginning to a more peaceful relationship with the Soviets. The crewmembers recall the beginning awkwardness between the two countries and the project’s lasting effects.
"National Defense Education Act." AP History. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://npaphistory.wikispaces.com/National%20Defense%20Education%20Act>. The National Defense Education Act was signed on September 2, 1958. It stimulated 877 million dollars, not 1 billion as other sources reported. From this source, I learned there were two purposes for the NDEA. The first is to improve education and the second to help elevate national security.
"Official White House Transcript of President Eisenhower's Press and Radio Conference." Interview. Eisenhower Presidential Library. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2012. <http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/sputnik/10_9_57.pdf>. The Eisenhower Presidential Library has been a great source of primary sources for me. This is a transcript of a press conference President Eisenhower conducted and it allowed me to see his personal view on Sputnik and Soviet Russia.
Powell, Alvin. "How Sputnik Changed U.S. Education." Harvard Gazette. N.p., 11 Oct. 2007. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/10/how-sputnik-changed-u-s-education/>. This article recognizes how great of an impact the Sputnik had on American science education. Harvard professors are calling for a similar science reform.
Rutherford, F. James. "Reflecting on Sputnik." Reflecting on Sputnik. Center for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Educatio, n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.nationalacademies.org/sputnik/ruther1.htm>. The Sputnik era brought a great educational reform in the United States. A major focus of this reform was science. Since then, the importance of a strong science education is stressed throughout the school system.
Siddiqi, Asif A. "Korolev, Sputnik, and The International Geophysical Year." Korolev, Sputnik, and The International Geophysical Year. NASA, n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/siddiqi.html>. Several of my other sources mentioned the International Geophysical Year, but only this source was able to explain it well. Through this source, I discovered that the timing of the Sputnik launch was motivated by Korolev’s determination to beat the United States in their satellite launch attempt.
"Sputnik Goes to School." Sputnik's Legacy. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://whyfiles.org/047sputnik/main2.html>. The educational reform changes were not evident in elementary schools until the late 1960s. The educational reform was more focused at the high levels of education, such as high school and college. Professors and scientists had the opportunity to input their opinons about updating teaching methods.
"Statement Prepared by the National Board Regarding the Russian Satellite." Eisenhower Presidential Library. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2012. <http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/sputnik/10_1957_Statement.pdf>. The board had to spend time determining the Sputnik’s significance, but it acknowledges the importance right away. They understood instantly that the nation’s future lies in their scientific achievement.
"The Cold War: Space Race." Historical Boys' Clothing. N.p., 25 Feb. 2010. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://histclo.com/essay/war/cold/space/cw-space.html>. The writer recalls the changes in popular culture during the Space Race. The writer also writes about the economic implications of the Space Race. It contributed to the inventions of the cell phone and Internet. It also contributed to America’s strong technological industry.
"Timeline of Space Exploration." The Space Race. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.thespacerace.com/timeline/>. The Space Race had multiple events. This is a complete timeline of all the events that occurred from 1657 to 1969, the end of the Space Race. This timeline helped me create my own timeline on my website.
Trumbore, Brian. "Sputnik, 1957." Educate Yourself. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.buyandhold.com/bh/en/education/history/2000/sputnik_1957.html>. This source provided me with quotes from the Americans and Soviets. The Soviets took great pride in their achievement and they made sure everyone knew it.
United States. NASA. US Announcement--July 1955. NASA, n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. < http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/14.html>. This is the official announcement made by the United States about the Sptunik launch. Only factual information is provided, but its tone creates unpleasantness, which is how all of America felt.
"1957: Sputnik Satellite Blasts into Space." BBC News. BBC, n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/4/newsid_2685000/2685115.stm>. Due to the Cold War currently going on, Americans assumed that the rocket used to launch Sputnik I could carry a nuclear weapon over to the United States. This led to the Americans’ extra funding in defense.
Secondary Sources
Books:
Halpern, Paul. "The Lure of Unknown Worlds." Introduction. The Quest for Alien Planets: Exploring Worlds outside the Solar System. New York: Plenum Trade, 1997. N. pag. Print. This book is about discovering worlds outside our solar system, but it gives credit to Sputnik 1 for opening the doors to possibilities as such. Without Sputnik 1, scientists would have never focused so much on space.
Neal, Valerie. Spaceflight. New York, NY: Macmillan. 1995. This book provided me with a great quote that is used in my website. It also provided me with simple, factual information about Sputnik and other events of the Space Race. The book did not too much in detail about the Sputnik launch because it was an overview of the history of spaceflight for multiple countries.
Websites:
Alcorn, Thomas. "The Sputnik Program." Nova. N.p., Aug. 2007. Web. 23 Oct. 2012. <http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his135/Events/Sputnik57/background.html>.
This source explained the first five Sputnik project in great detail. This source also clarified that the actual sputnik program was only 5 projects and not 25.
"Americans in Space." - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/Education/Students/Americans-in-Space.aspx>. The Russians were significantly ahead in the Space Race, as this source made evident. President John F. Kennedy announced the Americans were going to land a man on the moon and he was an important figure in the Space Race. JFK’s dedication to the space program contributed greatly to the United States’ Space Race victory.
“Biography of Wernher Von Braun." Biography of Wernher Von Braun. MSFC History Office, n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/vonbraun/bio.html>.Wernher von Braun was an important figure in the space exploration period between the 1930s and 1970s. He served as NASA’s director and became a prominent spokesman for space exploration in the United States.
"Competitors in the Space Race." Competitors in the Space Race. Smithsonian National Air and Science Museum, n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/spacerace/sec300/sec320.htm>. Behind the scientific breakthroughs, were brilliant engineers on both sides. Wernher von Braun lead the newly created NASA for the United States. The United States had a highly publicized civilian space program, while the Soviet program was the opposite.
Dick, Steven J. "The Birth of NASA." NASA. N.p., 28 Mar. 2008. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. <http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/whyweexplore/Why_We_29.html>. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson served as the chairman to the newly established Senate Special Committee on Space and Aeronautics. Johnson would later be President Kennedy’s vice president. This committee played a significant role in passing the National Aeronautics and Space Act. This act led to NASA’s creation and more funding for schools.
Divine, Robert A. The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhower's Response to the Soviet Satellite. New York: Oxford UP, 1993. Foreign Affairs. Council on Foreign Relations. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/48812/stephen-e-ambrose/the-sputnik-challenge-eisenhowers-response-to-the-soviet-satelli>.
Robert Divine praises President Eisenhower for how he responded to the Sputnik crisis.
Eisenhower realized that the Soviet Union did the United States a favor by setting a legal
precedent for future satellites.
Garber, Steve. "Sputnik." Sputnik. N.p., 10 Oct. 2007. Web. 06 Sept. 2012. <http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/>. This was my first source and it provided me with simple, factual information about the Sputnik. The source also taught me about the International Council of Scientific Union’s IGY.
Godwin, Matthew. "The Cold War and the Early Space Race." History in Focus. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/cold/articles/godwin.html>. Winston Churchill called the Cold “a balance of terror.” The two countries could not engage in militarily, so they used the Space Race as a mean where they could compete without contact.
Hu, Irene, and Lica Iwaki. "Turning Points in the Cold War: Sputnik 1 and Apollo 11." N.p., 4 Apr. 2000. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.angelfire.com/stars/lunareclipse/>. Both the Americans and Soviets realized there were endless possibilities in the new frontier. The Soviets wanted to launch a satellite first so they can show the world Communism’s superiority in technology. The American education system was doubted and attacked greatly, but that criticism was used to help improve the system.
Kaplan, Fred. "State of the Union 2011." Slate Magazine. N.p., 25 Jan. 2011. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/war_stories/2011/01/obamas_sputnik_moment.html>. President Obama address the Sputnik in his 2011 state of the union address. This reveals Sputnik’s significance in modern times. From this source, I learned the ways Sputnik revived the American economy.
Lappin, Daniel. "The Conflict." Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. <http://www.trumanlibrary.org/histday/historydaywebsite/Site/The%20Conflict.html>. From this source, I learned that the Cold War started a fierce competition between the US and Soviet Union to create the most powerful weapons. They realized that the figure of military technology was going to be found in rockets. The huge focus on rockets shifted to satellites and outer space after the Sputnik launch.
McDonough, Catherine C. "The Importance of Space Exploration on the Future of the Human Race." Teen Ink. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.teenink.com/opinion/environment/article/271337/The-Importance-of-Space-Exploration-on-the-Future-of-the-Human-Race/>. This article elaborates on the importance of space exploration and the Space Race. If it weren’t for the Space Race between the Americans and Soviets, the scientific breakthroughs experienced in the 50s and 60s would have occurred much later.
McGreal, Chris. "Obama's State of the Union Address: US Must Seize 'Sputnik Moment'" The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 26 Jan. 2011. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/26/state-of-the-union-address-obama-sputnik-moment>. President Obama makes a reference to Sputnik in his 2011 state of the union address. This proves that the Sputnik is still relevant today and its significance is still remembered.
Mitchell, Don P. "Sputnik-1." Sputnik-1. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2012. <http://www.mentallandscape.com/S_Sputnik1.htm>. From this source, I learned that Korolev was the head of the Soviet’s space program. There were pictures in this website and a sound recording of the Sputnik’s “beep.”
"Soviet Craft - Sputnik." Soviet Craft - Sputnik. N.p., 11 Jan. 2006. Web. 23 Oct. 2012. <http://burro.astr.cwru.edu/stu/advanced/20th_soviet_sputnik.html>. This website gave me information about the whole Sputnik program. It gave me basic summaries for each Sputnik project. This source allowed me to grasp how advance the Soviets were.
"Space Program." - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-History/Space-Program.aspx>. President John F. Kennedy understood that falling behind their Communist rival in the Space Race would be more of a political defeat than a scientific defeat. JFK wanted to land a man on the moon before 1970 and he urged Congress to pour billions into space program. Many skeptics questioned whether this would happen, but JFK’s persistence paid off when Apollo 11 landed on the moon on July 20, 1969.
"Sputnik's 50th Anniversary . Facts & Timeline | Thirteen EdOnline." Sputnik's 50th Anniversary . Facts & Timeline | Thirteen EdOnline. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Sept. 2012. <http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/sputnik/facts.html>. The Space Race was ignited by the launch of Sputnik I. Through this website, I gained a better knowledge of the Space Race events and each of their importances.
"The Cold War Museum." Cold War Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://www.coldwar.org/articles/50s/sputnik.asp>. The Sputnik launch was the single event to ignite the Space Race between the United States and Soviet Russia. This source showed me how the launch brought about new political, military, technological, and scientific developments.
"The Decision to Go to the Moon: President John F. Kennedy's May 25, 1961 Speech before Congress." The Decision to Go to the Moon:President John F. Kennedy's May 25, 1961 Speech before Congress. N.p., 7 Aug. 2012. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://history.nasa.gov/moondec.html>. President John F. Kennedy felt the pressure to have the United States beat the Soviet Union in the Space Race. He addressed a joint session of Congress and says that he plans to send an American to the moon before 1970.
"The Launch of Sputnik." The Launch of Sputnik. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/03-04/Baker-LM-MB-3-04/the_launch_of_sputnik.htm>. President Eisenhower downplayed the significance of the Soviet’s accomplishment, but the rest of the nation was panicking. Americans were under the impression that if the Soviets can launch a satellite into space, they can launch a rocket towards the United States. Sputnik’s launch was not revolutionary by scientific terms, but by political terms.
“The Legacy of Sputnik." Sputnik's 50th Anniversary . Facts & Timeline | Thirteen EdOnline. New York Times, 4 Oct. 2007. Web. 09 Sept. 2012. <http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/sputnik/facts.html>. The Sputnik was a political threat to the Americans. This website allowed me to understand the tension Sputnik added to the Cold War.
"The Race for Space." America and the Cold War. Ford Library Museum, n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. <http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/museum/exhibits/ColdWar/SpaceRace.html>. United States and Soviet Russia knew how important a victory in space would be in the Cold War. Presidents had important roles in the Space Race. President Eisenhower created NASA and President Kennedy urged a moon landing. From this source, I learned that President Kennedy understood the Soviets were ahead, but the finish line was the moon.
"The Space Race." Nebraska Studies. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0900/frameset_reset.html?http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0900/stories/0901_0105.html>. This source provided me with the insight to America’s response. They suddenly perceived the Soviet Union as the “enemy.” At the same time
"Vice President Johnson Was Assigned the Task of Unifying the U.S. Satellite Programs." Vice President Johnson Was Assigned the Task of Unifying the U.S. Satellite Programs. The Library of Congress, n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. <http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/modern/jb_modern_launch_1.html>. President Kennedy and Vice President Johnson’s efforts helped the United States win the Space Race. America’s space program skyrocketed after the Sputnik launch because of the investment put in for NASA.
Audio and Video:
Documentary 2007- Declassified: Sputnik. YouTube. N.p., 11 Dec. 2009. Web. 9 Nov. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ybB8WESJ89w>. This documentary includes live footage of the Sputnik era. Sputnik 1 was not seen as a Soviet achievement, but it was seen as an American failure.
Documentary 2007- Declassified: Sputnik (Part 2/6). N.p., 11 Dec. 2009. Web. 9 Nov. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ggp3dpz3u6s>. This documentary includes live footage of the Sputnik era. It talks about the major figures involved in Sputnik, especially Wernher von Braun.
"President John F. Kennedy Space Speech 1962." YouTube. YouTube, 17 July 2007. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oQOu0IAdgaA>. This is a video of President Kennedy’s speech in which he declared that America “chooses to go to the moon.” His dedication towards the expansion of the space program is a major reason why the United States won the Space Race.
First Moon Landing 1969. YouTube. N.p., 10 Feb. 2006. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMINSD7MmT4>.This video showed footage of the famous moon landing. The Apollo 11 mission was the most important in the Space Race because it proved the United State’s supremacy over USSR and ended the Space Race. 12 years after the beginning of the Space Race, the United States came out as victors.
Kennedy, John F. Special Message to Congress on Urgent National Needs. Rec. 25 May 1961. N.d. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKWHA-032.aspx>. In his address, President Kennedy advocates increased spending and support for the nation’s space program. He also discusses how Soviet Russia’s success in outer space could possibly lead to countries falling to communism.
Sputnik Beeping. YouTube. YouTube, 01 Mar. 2009. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lPFKd5p_t0s>. This is a video, but it contains the sound of the Sputnik 1 satellite. This simple “beep” sound changed the world. The sound “woke” America up and started the Space Race.
"Sputnik Beeps Overhead, Americans in Awe." YouTube. YouTube, 02 Feb. 2008. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHaJDuq6tBM>. This video includes various footage. All the footage is related to each other because they capture America’s awe regarding Sputnik. They are amazed by the advancement, but jealous because they wish it was them.
Sputnik Crisis. YouTube. N.p., 27 Dec. 2010. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJROTKO6IcM>. This video includes footage from the Sputnik era of newscasts. This gave specific details of the Sputnik crisis and its results.
Sputnik's Legacy. Perf. Roger Launius. New York Times. New York Times, n.d. Web. 9 Sept. 2012.<http://www.nytimes.com/video/2007/09/24/science/space/1194817120962/sputnik-s-legacy.html>. This video allowed me to visualize the dimensions of the Sputnik I better. It provided me with short video clips relating to Sputnik in that time period.
The Space Race Video. History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://www.history.com/topics/space-race/videos>. President Kennedy was determined to help the United States win the Space Race. He promised his citizens that America would land a man on the moon before 1970. NASA helped JFK keep this promise and in 1969, Apollo 11 landed successfully on the moon. This video praises America’s come from behind victory.
Sputnik Song. YouTube. N.p., 3 Oct. 2007. Web. 9 Nov. 2012. Sputnik was such a significant event in pop culture during the 1960s. This song shows that Sputnik was popular to everyone, not just scientists.
Cartoons:
"Eisenhower Playing Golf." Cartoon. Presidents' UFO. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.presidentialufo.com/old_site/Ike_golf.gif>. Political cartoons are great sources because they have strong meanings. This cartoon shows President Eisenhower playing golf while Sputnik flies over him. It can be interpreted as poor leadership by the United States has caused the Soviets to surpass them.
Jenkins, Burris, Jr. "Don't Spare the Rod, Professor." Cartoon. Presidents' UFO. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.presidentialufo.com/old_site/Killian.gif>. Dr. James Killian, Eisenhower’s science advisor, is being asked to not spare the rod when it came to catching up with the Soviets. They are willing to do what it takes to make mathematics and science education better.
Kruschev Celebrating." Cartoon. Presidents' UFO. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.presidentialufo.com/old_site/Eisenhower_1.gif>. Premier Krushchev is celebrating the Sputnik I launch. Sputnik I led to a rise of Soviet Russia’s power, which showed the world that success can be achieved through communism.
Marcus, Edwin. "Edwin Marcus Sputnik Cartoon." Cartoon. Library of Congress. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. <http://blogs.loc.gov/loc/files/2007/10/sputnik-jpg.jpg>. Edwin Marcus’ cartoon is an accurate portrayal of the American response to the Sputnik launch. America was “sleeping” and the Sputnik I launch woke them up. I used this picture on my website.
Williams, Frank. "Sputnik Panic." Cartoon. Presidents' UFO. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.presidentialufo.com/old_site/Sputnik_panic.gif>. This cartoon portrayed a majority of American’s feelings about the Sputnik I launch, which is panic. The United States did panic, but only for a short time. After the period of panic, the nation’s leaders started a plan to win the race.
Digital Images:
Alouette 1. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Alouette_1.jpg>. The Alouette 1 satellite was the first artificial satellite launched by a non-super power. Canada lunched this satellite on September 29, 1962. The Sputnik launched influenced other countries to develop a space program. Canada was the only non-superpower to be involved in the Space Race. This image is used on my timelime.
An Orbiting Partnership Is Born. Digital image. NASA. N.p., 15 July 2005. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/118781main_astp_crew_full.jpg>. The Apollo-Soyuz project was a collaboration between the Americans and Soviets. This project is a symbol of the détente polict that was being pursued by both countries at the time. This is the true end of the Space Race. The Space Race lasted from October 1957 to July 1975. This image of the crew was used in my timeline.
Apollo 8 Crewmembers. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Apollo_8_Crewmembers_-_GPN-2000-001125.jpg/471px-Apollo_8_Crewmembers_-_GPN-2000-001125.jpg>. Apollo 8 was launched by the United States on December 21, 1968. It was the first human-crewed space craft to leave Earth orbit, reach the moon, and return safely to Earth. NASA was able to gain confidence and momentum from Apollo 8. This image is used on my timeline.
Explorer 1. Digital image. Universe Today. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://www.universetoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Explorer-1.jpg>. I used this picture on my website timeline. It is of Explorer 1. Explorer 1 is indicated that the United States was approaching Soviet Union. This provided hope for Americans and let them believe that America will win the Space Race.
Explorer 6. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Explorer_6_paddles_up.jpg/800px-Explorer_6_paddles_up.jpg>. The Explorer 6 satellite took the first photo of Earth from outer space. It was launched on August 7, 1959 by the United States and NASA. The technology in Explorer 6 was an advantage for the Americans because they could use that technology to spy on the Soviets. This image is used for my website’s space race timeline.
First Communications Satellite. Digital image. WinnCad. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_JcIe4EsmDYA/TTph_EofD8I/AAAAAAAABBA/XnDX1xHsZC8/s1600/GPS-Satellite.jpg>. This is an image of the first communications satellite, which was launched by the United States on December 18, 1958. I used this image for my website’s space race timeline.
Hubbard, G. Scott. Sputnik: The Little Metal Ball That Fueled the Cold War Read More: Http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/Sputnik-The-little-metal-ball-that-fueled-the-2536655.php#ixzz27dixgXzA. Digital image. SF Gate. San Fransisco Chronicle, 6 Oct. 2007. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://ww1.hdnux.com/photos/12/12/64/2665748/10/628x471.jpg>. There are very few pictures of the launch on the Internet and I was very lucky to stumble across this one. Before seeing this picture, I thought the satellite was just launched into the sky. After seeing the picture, I now know that a rocket helped launch it.
"John Glenn Apollo 14." Space Ref. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Sept. 2012. <http://gallery.spaceref.com/us-spaceflight/AS14/lowres/10075555.jpg>. John Glenn is the first American to go into space. The Soviets were first to send a man to space, but the fact that the United States was able to do the same means that the US was catching up. I used this image in my timeline.
JFK Addresses Joint Session of Congress May 1961. Digital image. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/media/assets/foundation/nasa%20and%20space/jfk%20addresses%20joint%20session%20of%20congress%20may%201961.jpg?w=448>. President Kennedy was a strong advocate for the space program. In this image, he is seen addressing Congress. He said to them, "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth."
JFK at Rice University. Digital image. Wikimedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/JFK_at_Rice_University.jpg>. President John F. Kennedy is making a speech at Rice University in this image. I used this image in my timeline because it is a significant event in the Space Race.
Johnson, Lyndon B. "Space Program Progress Memo." John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/media/assets/Rollout/JFK%20in%20History/jfk-memo-lbj-space-p1.jpg>. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson responded to President John F. Kennedy’s request of evaluating the country’s space program. These now declassified documents revealed how seriously America’s political leaders took the Space Race.
Kennedy, John F. Correspondence between JFK and LBJ on the Space Program. Digital image. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/media/assets/Rollout/JFK%20in%20History/jfk-lbj01jpg.jpg>. President Kennedy asks Vice President Johnson to assess the country’s space program and see if NASA is giving their maximum effort. President Kennedy treated the Space Race as if it were World War III and it was a battle that he didn’t want to lose.
Kennedy, John F. Telegram Congratulating Khrushchev on Manned Space Flight. Digital image. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/media/assets/Rollout/JFK in History/jfk_telegram_khrushchev_april12_1961jpg.jpg>. President John F. Kennedy sent Premier Krushchev a telegram on April 12, 1961. The telegram congratulates the Soviet leader on the first manned space flight.
Launch of Vostok 1. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b6/Vostok1_big.gif>. The Soviets beat the United States in sending a human to orbit. Yuri Gagarin is the first human to travel in space and the first to orbit Earth. Vostok 1 is a signficant event in the Space Race and this image was used in my timeline.
Luna 2. Digital image. Space Pictures. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.spacepictures.org/albums/userpics/Luna_2_spaceprobe.jpg>. The Soviets looked as if though they were falling behind to the Americans in 1959. The Soviets answered back to US success strongly with Luna 2 and 3. Luna 2 was a probe that was sent to the moon and Luna 3 took a photo of the far side of the moon. I used this image in my space race timeline.
Moon Landing. Digital image. NASA. NASA, n.d. Web. 30 Sept. 2012. <http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/AS11-40-5875HRedit.jpg>. This image captures the most important event of the Space Race, the moon landing. I used this image in my timeline.
"Photo Gallery-Sputnik." Photo Gallery-Sputnik. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/sputnik/gallerysput.html>. This gallery contains seven Sputnik related pictures. Instead of citing them individually, I decided to keep it within one source. These pictures are used throughout my website.
Pregelj, Zdenka. Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova. Digital image. Russia, Past and Present. N.p., 5 Feb. 2011. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_cZuenMpLnLY/TU02pimkTjI/AAAAAAAACKI/NaSEQnUapxU/s1600/Tereshkova.jpg>. USSR launched Vostok 6 on June 16, 1963. Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova was the first woman in orbit. The Soviets have sent both a man and woman to space, while the United States have only sent a man. I used this image in my timeline.
President Kennedy Addresses Congress. Digital image. NASA. NASA, n.d. Web. 30 Sept. 2012. <http://history.nasa.gov/1658.jpg>. In this image, President John F. Kennedy is addressing Congress. He is explaining to Congress the importance of the space program and how more money needs to be invested. His persistence is a major reason why a man landed on the moon. I used this picture in my timeline.
NASA Creation. Digital image. Fold 3. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://img9.fold3.com/img/thumbnail/39929089/400/400/0_0_579_462.jpg>. NASA was created out of the National Defense of Education Act. This is an image of its establishment with its main leaders. I used this image on my timeline.
Reporting the Space Race. Digital image. Nebraska Studies. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0900/media/0901_0105_0102.gif>. The United States attempted launching their own satellites, called the Vanguard projects, but failed miserably. This image of a newspaper article reports the failed attempt.
Siddiqi, Asif A. Sputnik 1. Digital image. NASA. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/201353main_rs_image_feature_924_946x710.jpg>. The Sputnik satellite was the size of a basketball. This image helped me to understand the dimensions of the satellite, since there is a Soviet scientist standing right next to it. I used this picture in my website.
Soviet Fires Earth Satellite into Space. Digital image. University Honors. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://universityhonors.umd.edu/HONR269J/projects/castell/castell02.jpg>. This is an image of a newspaper cover of the New York Times the day after the Sputnik launch was announced. The Americans were stunned, as this newspaper chronicles.
Sputnik 2. Digital image. NSSDC. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/image/laika.jpg>. I used this picture on my website timeline. It is of Laika, the dog, on Sputnik 2. The Russians launched Sputnik 2 a few months after Sputnik 1. The United States was in full panic because Sputnik 2 made them realize how far behind they were.
Sputnik 3. Digital image. Mentall and Scape. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://www.mentallandscape.com/V_Sputnik3.jpg>. I used this picture on my website timeline. It is an image of Sputnik 3. Sputnik 3 proved to the world that the Russians were very advanced in science and were winning the Space Race.
Sputnik Stamp. Digital image. Wikipedia. WIkimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg>. This is a picture of a Soviet stamp that had Sputnik orbiting around Earth. From this picture, I came to the conclusion that the Soviets were extremely proud of their accomplishment.
The Cold War's Impact on Science and Technology. Digital image. Study the Past. N.p., 2008. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.studythepast.com/vbprojects/images/coldwartech.jpg>. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union’s nuclear threats were very public. “Duck and Cover” was a slogan that the United States publicly endoresed to promote safety. The Cold War was an era of fear for many Americans. The Soviet’s technological advancements increased that fear.
The Launch of Sputnik. Digital image. The Launch of Sputnik. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/03-04/Baker-LM-MB-3-04/images/sputnikorbit.jpg>. This image shows Sputnik I’s path as it orbited around the Earth on a daily basis. It would orbit over the United States seven times in a day and that frightened many civilians. However, the satellite was harmless.
The Launch of Sputnik. Digital image. The Launch of Sputnik. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/03-04/Baker-LM-MB-3-04/images/skywatch.jpg>. The American response of Sputnik was not all negative. Along with the panic Americans experienced, was also excitement for the discovery of a new frontier. American culture was intrigued by Sputnik I, mainly because there is so much mystery associated with outer space. People, young and old, would look up to the sky and look for the Sputnik. Toys inspired by the Sputnik were also made.
The National Archives. Digital image. Larger Image. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://www.archives.gov/global-pages/larger-image.html?i=/historical-docs/doc-content/images/natl-aero-space-act-1958-l.jpg>. This is a picture of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. This act is of great importance. Without this act, NASA would have never been created and the United States would have lost the Space Race to Soviet Russia.
Time Magazine Cover. Digital image. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/~/media/assets/Museum%20Objects/Crops%20and%20Not%20Museum%20objects/AV%20crop%20images/Glenntimejpg.jpg>. This is a picture of a Time magazine cover with John Glenn. The title of it is “Space Race is Go.” John Glenn’s orbit around the earth helped the United States get back into the race.
These Soviet Space-Race Propaganda Posters Retain Their Delusional Intensity 50 Years Later Read More: Http://www.businessinsider.com/here-are-the-soviets-extremely-intense-space-race-propaganda-posters-from-1958-1963-2012-4?op=1#ixzz27kV9EvKn. Digital image. Business Insider. N.p., 26 Apr. 2012. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://static2.businessinsider.com/image/4f9849a56bb3f79e2b00000b-398-599/soviet-union-space-propaganda.png>. During the Space Race, Soviet Russia produced a lot of propaganda. This image is the most popular out of all of them. It reads, “Soviet man-be proud, you opened the road to stars from Earth! Glory to the conquerors of the universe!” As evident by the saying, the Soviets were very proud of Sputnik I and its later Space Race achievements.
Vanguard 1. Digital image. United StatesNaval Research Laboratory. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nrl.navy.mil/content_images/vanguard.jpg>. This is an image of the Vanguard 1 satellite. After many attempts, the United States finally succeeded in sending a satellite to outer space. This was a huge sigh of relief for the American space program and government.
Vanguard 2. Digital image. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Vanguard2.jpg>. I used this image for my website’s space race timeline. This is an image of Vanguard 2, the first weather satellite. This is one of NASA’s first projects as an official organization, and it surely wasn’t their last. The success of the Vanguard program encouraged the United States and led them to believe that they were catching up to the Soviets.
Interviews:
Das, Saswato R. "The Moon Landing through Soviet Eyes: A Q&A with Sergei Khrushchev, Son of Former Premier Nikita Khrushchev: Scientific American." The Moon Landing through Soviet Eyes: A Q&A with Sergei Khrushchev, Son of Former Premier Nikita Khrushchev. N.p., 16 July 2009. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=apollo-moon-khrushchev>. I did not conduct this interview with Sergei Krushchev, rather a reporter did and posted it online. This interview is one of my most valuable primary sources because it provided me an important Soviet’s perspective on the Sputnik, Cold War, Space Race, and America’s victory.
"USSR Misjudged Importance of Sputnik Satellite: Krushchev's Son." USSR Misjudged Importance of Sputnik Satellite: Krushchev's Son. N.p., 2 Oct. 2007. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/USSR_misjudged_importance_of_Sputnik_satellite_Krushchevs_son_999.html>. Sergei Kruschev answered a reporter’s questions and it was published online in this article. Kruschev says that for the Soviets, Sputnik was just a technological breakthrough, but for the Americans, it was a wake-up call and a deep threat. Kruschev goes on to say that the Space Race was really just an American race with itself. This could be a way of downplaying the American victory.
Thesis:
Bybee, Roger W. The Sputnik Era: Why Is This Educational Reform Different from All Other Reforms? Thesis. Center for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Education National Research Council, n.d. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print. Roger Bybee was involved in education during the years of the Space Race. He presents the argument that the educational reform of the Sputnik era is the most significant of all reforms and he provides strong supporting evidence.
Websites:
Abramson, Larry. "Sputnik Left Legacy for U.S. Science Education." NPR. NPR, 30 Sept. 2007. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14829195>. David Hawkins led the effort to rejuvenate the science education curriculum. National Defense Education Act put a billion dollars into a new science curriculum. Nowadays, we are falling behind in science. No Child Left Behind focuses on reading and basic math, not science.
Anthes, Gary. "Happy Birthday, Sputnik! (Thanks for the Internet)." Computerworld. N.p., 24 Sept. 2007. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9036482/Happy_Birthday_Sputnik_Thanks_for_the_Internet_>. This article pays tribute to Sputnik. Without Sputnik, the Space Race would not have occurred, thus the Internet would have never been invented. Scientists recall its impact and how satellite technology paved the way for the creation of the Internet.
Arnold, David. "Sputnik 50 Years Later." Air Force Space Command. N.p., 1 Oct. 2002. Web. 23 Oct. 2012. <http://www.afspc.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123070183>. Lt. Col. David Arnold is a reliable source for history technology. He was involved in the United States’ space program during the Sputnik era, which makes his article a primary source. He gave four reasons for why the Soviets beat the Americans in space.
Castell, Kate. "Sputnik: The Satellite That Inspired Generations." The Beat Begins: America in the 1950s. N.p., 2003. Web. 06 Oct. 2012. <http://universityhonors.umd.edu/HONR269J/projects/castell.html>. The Sputnik launch had many effects on the United States. The major effect is education, but a stronger navy is also another effect. Leaders in the Space Race provide quotes about the events.
"EMC - Eisenhower Stories - Dealing with the Devil." EMC - Eisenhower Stories - Dealing with the Devil. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/stories/sputnik-crisis.htm>. This source provided me with specific information on how President Eisenhower dealt with the Sputnik crisis. He was criticized unfairly by the Americans.
Gale, O. M. "Public Opinion Index, April 14, 1958." Eisenhower Presidential Library. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Oct. 2012. <http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/sputnik/4_14_58.pdf>. The office of secretary of defense sent a memorandum out. It addressed the impact of Sputnik, where to place the blame, and possible solutions.
Galloway, Eilene. "NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration." NASA. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nasa.gov/50th/50th_magazine/gallowayEsaay.html>. Eilene Galloway was involved in the space program at the time of the Sputnik launch. She writes about Lyndon B. Johnson’s leadership role in getting the program to be successful.
Guillemette, Roger. "Spaceflight :Sputnik and the Crisis That Followed." Spaceflight :Sputnik and the Crisis That Followed. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/SPACEFLIGHT/Sputnik/SP16.htm>. This source provided me with a detailed account of America’s response to the launch. The citizens and media were panicking and thus the name “Sputnik Crisis” was created. However, the President’s response to the launch was rather calm but Eisenhower was still proactive.
Hoffman, Michael. "Looking Back: Sputnik's Importance." DailyTech. N.p., 10 Oct. 2007. Web. 27 Sept. 2012. <http://www.dailytech.com/Looking+Back++Sputniks+Importance/article9110.htm>. The writer of this article, a Princeton graduate, recalls his memory of the Sputnik launch. He, like other Americans, felt jealous of the Soviets because of their achievement. The writer also benefitted from the educational reform, with the focus shifting towards mathematics and science.
Hubbard, G. Scott. "Sputnik: The Little Metal Ball That Fueled the Cold War." SFGate. San Fransisco Chronicle, 6 Oct. 2007. Web. 27 Sept. 2012. <http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/Sputnik-The-little-metal-ball-that-fueled-the-2536655.php>. Hubbard writes of his awareness of the Sputnik launch as a 9-year-old and the impact it had on him. He goes on to talk about how the launch of Sputnik was a critical turning point in history, which is very helpful because that is this year’s topic.
Jorden, William J. "Soviet Fires Earth Satellite Into Space; It Is Circling the Globe at 18,000 M.P.H.; Sphere Tracked in 4 Crossings Over U.S." New York Times [New York City] 5 Oct. 1957: n. pag. Sputnik Classroom Activity. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.trumanlibrary.org/museum/sputnik1.htm>. This was an article written to The New York Times from a correspondent in Moscow at the time. The article downplays the significance of the Sputnik launch and claims it to be harmless.
Killian, James R. "Sputnik, Scientists, and Eisenhower A Memoir of the First Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology." The MIT Press. MIT, n.d. Web. 27 Sept. 2012. <http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?tid=7910&t>. James Killian served as a special assistant for science technology to President Eisenhower. This excerpt from his memoir tells his first-hand experience of working under Eisenhower, so this source is highly credible.
Launius, Roger D. "Sputnik and the Origins of the Space Age." Sputnik and the Origins of the Space Age. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Sept. 2012. <http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/sputorig.html>. This website served as one of my most valuable sources. It provided me great information about the launch, the scientific and political effects, and the global response.
"Legacy of the Space Race - How the Space Race Fueled Innovation." How the Space Race Fueled Innovation. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://spaceraceinnovations.weebly.com/legacy-of-the-space-race.html>. This source explained the legacy of the Space Race and the changes that resulted from it. The Space Race had fun effects, such as the selling of Tang. The Space Race also created mass communication and new modern technology with the help of satellite technology.
Minkel, JR. "Sputnik Hype Launched One-Sided Space Race: Scientific American." Sputnik Hype Launched One-Sided Space Race: Scientific American. Scientific American, 5 Oct. 2007. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=sputnik-50-years-space-race-hype>. Sputnik resulted from Russian engineers who were originally attempting to create an intercontinental ballistic missile. The Americans were stunned by Sputnik and the Soviet’s scientific/technological advancement. Premier Nikita Krushchev took pride in Sputnik because it gave the country bragging rights over the United States.
NASA - An Orbiting Partnership Is Born." NASA. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nasa.gov/vision/space/features/astp_30_prt.htm>. The Apollo-Soyuz project was a significant collaboration between United States and USSR. This marked the end of the Space Race, but it was the beginning to a more peaceful relationship with the Soviets. The crewmembers recall the beginning awkwardness between the two countries and the project’s lasting effects.
"National Defense Education Act." AP History. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://npaphistory.wikispaces.com/National%20Defense%20Education%20Act>. The National Defense Education Act was signed on September 2, 1958. It stimulated 877 million dollars, not 1 billion as other sources reported. From this source, I learned there were two purposes for the NDEA. The first is to improve education and the second to help elevate national security.
"Official White House Transcript of President Eisenhower's Press and Radio Conference." Interview. Eisenhower Presidential Library. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2012. <http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/sputnik/10_9_57.pdf>. The Eisenhower Presidential Library has been a great source of primary sources for me. This is a transcript of a press conference President Eisenhower conducted and it allowed me to see his personal view on Sputnik and Soviet Russia.
Powell, Alvin. "How Sputnik Changed U.S. Education." Harvard Gazette. N.p., 11 Oct. 2007. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/10/how-sputnik-changed-u-s-education/>. This article recognizes how great of an impact the Sputnik had on American science education. Harvard professors are calling for a similar science reform.
Rutherford, F. James. "Reflecting on Sputnik." Reflecting on Sputnik. Center for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Educatio, n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.nationalacademies.org/sputnik/ruther1.htm>. The Sputnik era brought a great educational reform in the United States. A major focus of this reform was science. Since then, the importance of a strong science education is stressed throughout the school system.
Siddiqi, Asif A. "Korolev, Sputnik, and The International Geophysical Year." Korolev, Sputnik, and The International Geophysical Year. NASA, n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/siddiqi.html>. Several of my other sources mentioned the International Geophysical Year, but only this source was able to explain it well. Through this source, I discovered that the timing of the Sputnik launch was motivated by Korolev’s determination to beat the United States in their satellite launch attempt.
"Sputnik Goes to School." Sputnik's Legacy. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://whyfiles.org/047sputnik/main2.html>. The educational reform changes were not evident in elementary schools until the late 1960s. The educational reform was more focused at the high levels of education, such as high school and college. Professors and scientists had the opportunity to input their opinons about updating teaching methods.
"Statement Prepared by the National Board Regarding the Russian Satellite." Eisenhower Presidential Library. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2012. <http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/sputnik/10_1957_Statement.pdf>. The board had to spend time determining the Sputnik’s significance, but it acknowledges the importance right away. They understood instantly that the nation’s future lies in their scientific achievement.
"The Cold War: Space Race." Historical Boys' Clothing. N.p., 25 Feb. 2010. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://histclo.com/essay/war/cold/space/cw-space.html>. The writer recalls the changes in popular culture during the Space Race. The writer also writes about the economic implications of the Space Race. It contributed to the inventions of the cell phone and Internet. It also contributed to America’s strong technological industry.
"Timeline of Space Exploration." The Space Race. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.thespacerace.com/timeline/>. The Space Race had multiple events. This is a complete timeline of all the events that occurred from 1657 to 1969, the end of the Space Race. This timeline helped me create my own timeline on my website.
Trumbore, Brian. "Sputnik, 1957." Educate Yourself. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.buyandhold.com/bh/en/education/history/2000/sputnik_1957.html>. This source provided me with quotes from the Americans and Soviets. The Soviets took great pride in their achievement and they made sure everyone knew it.
United States. NASA. US Announcement--July 1955. NASA, n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. < http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/14.html>. This is the official announcement made by the United States about the Sptunik launch. Only factual information is provided, but its tone creates unpleasantness, which is how all of America felt.
"1957: Sputnik Satellite Blasts into Space." BBC News. BBC, n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/4/newsid_2685000/2685115.stm>. Due to the Cold War currently going on, Americans assumed that the rocket used to launch Sputnik I could carry a nuclear weapon over to the United States. This led to the Americans’ extra funding in defense.
Secondary Sources
Books:
Halpern, Paul. "The Lure of Unknown Worlds." Introduction. The Quest for Alien Planets: Exploring Worlds outside the Solar System. New York: Plenum Trade, 1997. N. pag. Print. This book is about discovering worlds outside our solar system, but it gives credit to Sputnik 1 for opening the doors to possibilities as such. Without Sputnik 1, scientists would have never focused so much on space.
Neal, Valerie. Spaceflight. New York, NY: Macmillan. 1995. This book provided me with a great quote that is used in my website. It also provided me with simple, factual information about Sputnik and other events of the Space Race. The book did not too much in detail about the Sputnik launch because it was an overview of the history of spaceflight for multiple countries.
Websites:
Alcorn, Thomas. "The Sputnik Program." Nova. N.p., Aug. 2007. Web. 23 Oct. 2012. <http://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/evans/his135/Events/Sputnik57/background.html>.
This source explained the first five Sputnik project in great detail. This source also clarified that the actual sputnik program was only 5 projects and not 25.
"Americans in Space." - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/Education/Students/Americans-in-Space.aspx>. The Russians were significantly ahead in the Space Race, as this source made evident. President John F. Kennedy announced the Americans were going to land a man on the moon and he was an important figure in the Space Race. JFK’s dedication to the space program contributed greatly to the United States’ Space Race victory.
“Biography of Wernher Von Braun." Biography of Wernher Von Braun. MSFC History Office, n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/vonbraun/bio.html>.Wernher von Braun was an important figure in the space exploration period between the 1930s and 1970s. He served as NASA’s director and became a prominent spokesman for space exploration in the United States.
"Competitors in the Space Race." Competitors in the Space Race. Smithsonian National Air and Science Museum, n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/gal114/spacerace/sec300/sec320.htm>. Behind the scientific breakthroughs, were brilliant engineers on both sides. Wernher von Braun lead the newly created NASA for the United States. The United States had a highly publicized civilian space program, while the Soviet program was the opposite.
Dick, Steven J. "The Birth of NASA." NASA. N.p., 28 Mar. 2008. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. <http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/whyweexplore/Why_We_29.html>. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson served as the chairman to the newly established Senate Special Committee on Space and Aeronautics. Johnson would later be President Kennedy’s vice president. This committee played a significant role in passing the National Aeronautics and Space Act. This act led to NASA’s creation and more funding for schools.
Divine, Robert A. The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhower's Response to the Soviet Satellite. New York: Oxford UP, 1993. Foreign Affairs. Council on Foreign Relations. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/48812/stephen-e-ambrose/the-sputnik-challenge-eisenhowers-response-to-the-soviet-satelli>.
Robert Divine praises President Eisenhower for how he responded to the Sputnik crisis.
Eisenhower realized that the Soviet Union did the United States a favor by setting a legal
precedent for future satellites.
Garber, Steve. "Sputnik." Sputnik. N.p., 10 Oct. 2007. Web. 06 Sept. 2012. <http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/>. This was my first source and it provided me with simple, factual information about the Sputnik. The source also taught me about the International Council of Scientific Union’s IGY.
Godwin, Matthew. "The Cold War and the Early Space Race." History in Focus. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/cold/articles/godwin.html>. Winston Churchill called the Cold “a balance of terror.” The two countries could not engage in militarily, so they used the Space Race as a mean where they could compete without contact.
Hu, Irene, and Lica Iwaki. "Turning Points in the Cold War: Sputnik 1 and Apollo 11." N.p., 4 Apr. 2000. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.angelfire.com/stars/lunareclipse/>. Both the Americans and Soviets realized there were endless possibilities in the new frontier. The Soviets wanted to launch a satellite first so they can show the world Communism’s superiority in technology. The American education system was doubted and attacked greatly, but that criticism was used to help improve the system.
Kaplan, Fred. "State of the Union 2011." Slate Magazine. N.p., 25 Jan. 2011. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/war_stories/2011/01/obamas_sputnik_moment.html>. President Obama address the Sputnik in his 2011 state of the union address. This reveals Sputnik’s significance in modern times. From this source, I learned the ways Sputnik revived the American economy.
Lappin, Daniel. "The Conflict." Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. <http://www.trumanlibrary.org/histday/historydaywebsite/Site/The%20Conflict.html>. From this source, I learned that the Cold War started a fierce competition between the US and Soviet Union to create the most powerful weapons. They realized that the figure of military technology was going to be found in rockets. The huge focus on rockets shifted to satellites and outer space after the Sputnik launch.
McDonough, Catherine C. "The Importance of Space Exploration on the Future of the Human Race." Teen Ink. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2012. <http://www.teenink.com/opinion/environment/article/271337/The-Importance-of-Space-Exploration-on-the-Future-of-the-Human-Race/>. This article elaborates on the importance of space exploration and the Space Race. If it weren’t for the Space Race between the Americans and Soviets, the scientific breakthroughs experienced in the 50s and 60s would have occurred much later.
McGreal, Chris. "Obama's State of the Union Address: US Must Seize 'Sputnik Moment'" The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 26 Jan. 2011. Web. 26 Oct. 2012. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/26/state-of-the-union-address-obama-sputnik-moment>. President Obama makes a reference to Sputnik in his 2011 state of the union address. This proves that the Sputnik is still relevant today and its significance is still remembered.
Mitchell, Don P. "Sputnik-1." Sputnik-1. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2012. <http://www.mentallandscape.com/S_Sputnik1.htm>. From this source, I learned that Korolev was the head of the Soviet’s space program. There were pictures in this website and a sound recording of the Sputnik’s “beep.”
"Soviet Craft - Sputnik." Soviet Craft - Sputnik. N.p., 11 Jan. 2006. Web. 23 Oct. 2012. <http://burro.astr.cwru.edu/stu/advanced/20th_soviet_sputnik.html>. This website gave me information about the whole Sputnik program. It gave me basic summaries for each Sputnik project. This source allowed me to grasp how advance the Soviets were.
"Space Program." - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Sept. 2012. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-History/Space-Program.aspx>. President John F. Kennedy understood that falling behind their Communist rival in the Space Race would be more of a political defeat than a scientific defeat. JFK wanted to land a man on the moon before 1970 and he urged Congress to pour billions into space program. Many skeptics questioned whether this would happen, but JFK’s persistence paid off when Apollo 11 landed on the moon on July 20, 1969.
"Sputnik's 50th Anniversary . Facts & Timeline | Thirteen EdOnline." Sputnik's 50th Anniversary . Facts & Timeline | Thirteen EdOnline. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Sept. 2012. <http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/sputnik/facts.html>. The Space Race was ignited by the launch of Sputnik I. Through this website, I gained a better knowledge of the Space Race events and each of their importances.
"The Cold War Museum." Cold War Museum. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Sept. 2012. <http://www.coldwar.org/articles/50s/sputnik.asp>. The Sputnik launch was the single event to ignite the Space Race between the United States and Soviet Russia. This source showed me how the launch brought about new political, military, technological, and scientific developments.
"The Decision to Go to the Moon: President John F. Kennedy's May 25, 1961 Speech before Congress." The Decision to Go to the Moon:President John F. Kennedy's May 25, 1961 Speech before Congress. N.p., 7 Aug. 2012. Web. 28 Oct. 2012. <http://history.nasa.gov/moondec.html>. President John F. Kennedy felt the pressure to have the United States beat the Soviet Union in the Space Race. He addressed a joint session of Congress and says that he plans to send an American to the moon before 1970.
"The Launch of Sputnik." The Launch of Sputnik. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2012. <http://www2.needham.k12.ma.us/nhs/cur/Baker_00/03-04/Baker-LM-MB-3-04/the_launch_of_sputnik.htm>. President Eisenhower downplayed the significance of the Soviet’s accomplishment, but the rest of the nation was panicking. Americans were under the impression that if the Soviets can launch a satellite into space, they can launch a rocket towards the United States. Sputnik’s launch was not revolutionary by scientific terms, but by political terms.
“The Legacy of Sputnik." Sputnik's 50th Anniversary . Facts & Timeline | Thirteen EdOnline. New York Times, 4 Oct. 2007. Web. 09 Sept. 2012. <http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/sputnik/facts.html>. The Sputnik was a political threat to the Americans. This website allowed me to understand the tension Sputnik added to the Cold War.
"The Race for Space." America and the Cold War. Ford Library Museum, n.d. Web. 21 Sept. 2012. <http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/museum/exhibits/ColdWar/SpaceRace.html>. United States and Soviet Russia knew how important a victory in space would be in the Cold War. Presidents had important roles in the Space Race. President Eisenhower created NASA and President Kennedy urged a moon landing. From this source, I learned that President Kennedy understood the Soviets were ahead, but the finish line was the moon.
"The Space Race." Nebraska Studies. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0900/frameset_reset.html?http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0900/stories/0901_0105.html>. This source provided me with the insight to America’s response. They suddenly perceived the Soviet Union as the “enemy.” At the same time
"Vice President Johnson Was Assigned the Task of Unifying the U.S. Satellite Programs." Vice President Johnson Was Assigned the Task of Unifying the U.S. Satellite Programs. The Library of Congress, n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2012. <http://www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/modern/jb_modern_launch_1.html>. President Kennedy and Vice President Johnson’s efforts helped the United States win the Space Race. America’s space program skyrocketed after the Sputnik launch because of the investment put in for NASA.